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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of articles on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Sigmund Freud's couch</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Psychosexual_development" title="Psychosexual development">Psychosexual development</a></li>

<li><a href="Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development" title="Erikson's stages of psychosocial development">Psychosocial development (Erikson)</a></li>

<li><a href="Unconscious_mind#Freud's_view" title="Unconscious mind">Unconscious</a></li>

<li><a href="Preconscious" title="Preconscious">Preconscious</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychic_apparatus" title="Psychic apparatus">Psychic apparatus</a></li>

<li><a href="Id%2C_ego_and_superego" title="Id, ego and superego">Id, ego and superego</a></li>

<li><a href="Defence_mechanisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence mechanisms">Ego defenses</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Projection</a></li>

<li><a href="Introjection" title="Introjection">Introjection</a></li>

<li><a href="Libido" title="Libido">Libido</a></li>

<li><a href="Drive_theory" title="Drive theory">Drive</a></li>

<li><a href="Transference" title="Transference">Transference</a></li>

<li><a href="Countertransference" title="Countertransference">Countertransference</a></li>

<li><a href="Resistance_(psychoanalysis)" title="Resistance (psychoanalysis)">Resistance</a></li>

<li><a href="Denial_(Freud)" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial (Freud)">Denial</a></li>

<li><a href="Dreamwork" title="Dreamwork">Dreamwork</a></li>

<li><a href="Cathexis" title="Cathexis">Cathexis</a></li></ul>

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</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Important figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Karl_Abraham" title="Karl Abraham">Abraham</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Adler</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Balint" title="Michael Balint">Balint</a></li>

<li><a href="Josef_Breuer" title="Josef Breuer">Breuer</a></li>

<li><a href="Nancy_Chodorow" title="Nancy Chodorow">Chodorow</a></li>

<li><a href="Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erikson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Fairbairn" title="Ronald Fairbairn">Fairbairn</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%A1ndor_Ferenczi" title="Sándor Ferenczi">Ferenczi</a></li>

<li><a href="Anna_Freud" title="Anna Freud">Freud (Anna)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud (Sigmund)</a></li>

<li><a href="Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li>

<li><a href="F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li>

<li><a href="Karen_Horney" title="Karen Horney">Horney</a></li>

<li><a href="Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li>

<li><a href="Edith_Jacobson" title="Edith Jacobson">Jacobson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Jones" title="Ernest Jones">Jones</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinz_Kohut" title="Heinz Kohut">Kohut</a></li>

<li><a href="Melanie_Klein" title="Melanie Klein">Klein</a></li>

<li><a href="Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li>

<li><a href="R._D._Laing" title="R. D. Laing">Laing</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Laplanche" title="Jean Laplanche">Laplanche</a></li>

<li><a href="Margaret_Mahler" title="Margaret Mahler">Mahler</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Reich" title="Wilhelm Reich">Reich</a></li>

<li><a href="Sabina_Spielrein" title="Sabina Spielrein">Spielrein</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Stekel" title="Wilhelm Stekel">Stekel</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Strachey" title="James Strachey">Strachey</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Winnicott" title="Donald Winnicott">Winnicott</a></li>

<li><a href="Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Important works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist">

<ul><li><i><a href="The_Interpretation_of_Dreams" title="The Interpretation of Dreams">The Interpretation of Dreams</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1899)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Psychopathology_of_Everyday_Life" title="The Psychopathology of Everyday Life">The Psychopathology of Everyday Life</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1901)</span></li>

<li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><i><a href="Three_Essays_on_the_Theory_of_Sexuality" title="Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality">Three Essays on the Theory<br>of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1905)</span></div></li>

<li><i><a href="Psychology_of_the_Unconscious" title="Psychology of the Unconscious">Psychology of the Unconscious</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1912)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Beyond_the_Pleasure_Principle" title="Beyond the Pleasure Principle">Beyond the Pleasure Principle</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1920)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1930)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Mass_Psychology_of_Fascism" title="The Mass Psychology of Fascism">The Mass Psychology of Fascism</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1933)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Four_Fundamental_Concepts_of_Psychoanalysis" title="The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis">The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1964)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Anti-Oedipus" title="Anti-Oedipus">Anti-Oedipus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1972)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Sublime_Object_of_Ideology" title="The Sublime Object of Ideology">The Sublime Object of Ideology</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1989)</span></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools of thought</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Individual_psychology" title="Individual psychology">Adlerian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ego_psychology" title="Ego psychology">Ego psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_psychology" title="Analytical psychology">Jungian</a></li>

<li><a href="Lacanianism" title="Lacanianism">Lacanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpersonal_psychoanalysis" title="Interpersonal psychoanalysis">Interpersonal</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersubjective_psychoanalysis" title="Intersubjective psychoanalysis">Intersubjective</a></li>

<li><a href="Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Marxist</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_relations_theory" title="Object relations theory">Object relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Reichian_therapy" title="Reichian therapy">Reichian</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_psychoanalysis" title="Relational psychoanalysis">Relational</a></li>

<li><a href="Self_psychology" title="Self psychology">Self psychology</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Training</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist">

<ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="Boston_Graduate_School_of_Psychoanalysis" title="Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis">Boston Graduate School of<br>Psychoanalysis</a></div></li>

<li><a href="British_Psychoanalytic_Council" title="British Psychoanalytic Council">British Psychoanalytic Council</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Psychoanalytical_Society" title="British Psychoanalytical Society">British Psychoanalytical Society</a></li>

<li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="Columbia_University_Center_for_Psychoanalytic_Training_and_Research" title="Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research">Columbia University Center for<br>Psychoanalytic Training and Research</a></div></li>

<li><a href="International_Psychoanalytical_Association" title="International Psychoanalytical Association">International Psychoanalytical Association</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Association_of_Psychoanalysis" title="World Association of Psychoanalysis">World Association of Psychoanalysis</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_schools_of_psychoanalysis" title="List of schools of psychoanalysis">List of schools of psychoanalysis</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Child_psychoanalysis" title="Child psychoanalysis">Child psychoanalysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Depth_psychology" title="Depth psychology">Depth psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychodynamics" title="Psychodynamics">Psychodynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul>

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<p><b>Herbert</b> "<b>Harry</b>" <b>Stack Sullivan</b> (February 21, 1892 – January 14, 1949) was an American <a href="Neo-Freudian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Freudian">neo-Freudian</a> <a href="Psychiatrist" title="Psychiatrist">psychiatrist</a> and <a href="Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalyst</a> who held that "personality can never be isolated from the complex <a href="Interpersonal_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpersonal relationships">interpersonal relationships</a> in which [a] person lives" and that "[t]he field of psychiatry is the field of interpersonal relations under any and all circumstances in which [such] relations exist".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having studied therapists <a href="Freud" class="mw-redirect" title="Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, <a href="Adolf_Meyer_(psychiatrist)" title="Adolf Meyer (psychiatrist)">Adolf Meyer</a>, and <a href="William_Alanson_White" title="William Alanson White">William Alanson White</a>, he devoted years of clinical and research work to helping people with psychotic illness.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div>

<p>Sullivan was a child of Irish immigrants. He was born and grew up in the then anti-Catholic town of <a href="Norwich_(city)%2C_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwich (city), New York">Norwich, New York</a>, resulting in a <a href="Social_isolation" title="Social isolation">social isolation</a> that may have inspired his later interest in psychiatry. He attended the Smyrna Union School, then spent two years at <a href="Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> from 1909,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> receiving his medical degree in <a href="Chicago_College_of_Medicine_and_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery">Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery</a> in 1917.

</p>

<p>Along with <a href="Clara_Thompson" title="Clara Thompson">Clara Thompson</a>, <a href="Karen_Horney" title="Karen Horney">Karen Horney</a>, <a href="Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a>, <a href="Otto_Allen_Will_Jr." title="Otto Allen Will Jr.">Otto Allen Will Jr.</a>, <a href="Erik_H._Erikson" class="mw-redirect" title="Erik H. Erikson">Erik H. Erikson</a>, and <a href="Frieda_Fromm-Reichmann" title="Frieda Fromm-Reichmann">Frieda Fromm-Reichmann</a>, Sullivan laid the groundwork for understanding the individual based on the network of relationships in which they are enmeshed. He developed a theory of psychiatry based on interpersonal relationships<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where cultural forces are largely responsible for <a href="Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illnesses</a> <i>(see also <a href="Social_psychiatry" title="Social psychiatry">social psychiatry</a>)</i>. In his words, one must pay attention to the "interactional", not the "intrapsychic". This search for satisfaction via personal involvement with others led Sullivan to characterize <a href="Loneliness" title="Loneliness">loneliness</a> as the most painful human experience. He also extended Freudian psychoanalysis to the treatment of patients with severe mental disorders, particularly <a href="Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>.

</p><p>Besides making the first mention of the <a href="Significant_other" title="Significant other">significant other</a> in psychological literature, Sullivan developed the idea of the "<a href="Self_system" title="Self system">Self system</a>", a configuration of the personality traits developed in childhood and reinforced by positive affirmation and the security operations developed in childhood to avoid anxiety and threats to self-esteem. Sullivan further defined the Self System as a steering mechanism toward a series of I-You interlocking behaviors—that is, what an individual does is meant to elicit a particular reaction.

</p><p>Sullivan called these behaviors <a href="Parataxical_Integration" title="Parataxical Integration">Parataxical Integrations</a> and noted that such action-reaction combinations can become rigid and dominate an adult's thinking pattern, limiting their actions and reactions to the world as the adult sees it, not as it really is. The resulting inaccuracies in judgment Sullivan termed <a href="Parataxic_distortion" title="Parataxic distortion">parataxic distortion</a>, when other persons are perceived or evaluated based on the patterns of previous experience, similar to Freud's notion of <a href="Transference" title="Transference">transference</a>. Sullivan also introduced the concept of "prototaxic communication" as a more primitive, needy, infantile form of psychic interchange and "syntactic communication" as a mature style of emotional interaction.

</p><p>Sullivan's work on interpersonal relationships became the foundation of <a href="Interpersonal_psychoanalysis" title="Interpersonal psychoanalysis">interpersonal psychoanalysis</a>, a school of psychoanalytic theory and treatment that stresses detailed exploration of the nuances of patients' patterns of interacting with others.

</p><p>Sullivan was the first to coin the term "problems in living" to describe the difficulties with self and others those with mental illnesses experience. This phrase was later picked up and popularized by <a href="Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>, whose work was a foundational resource for the <a href="Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">antipsychiatry</a> movement. "Problems in living" went on to become the movement's preferred way to refer to the manifestations of mental disturbances.

</p><p>In 1927, he reviewed the controversial, anonymously published <i>The Invert and his Social Adjustment</i> and in 1929 called it "a remarkable document by a homosexual man of refinement; intended primarily as a guide to the unfortunate sufferers of sexual inversion, and much less open to criticism than anything else of the kind so far published."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>He was one of the founders of the <a href="William_Alanson_White_Institute" title="William Alanson White Institute">William Alanson White Institute</a>, considered by many the world's leading independent psychoanalytic institute, and of the journal <i>Psychiatry</i> in 1937. He headed the Washington, D.C., School of Psychiatry from 1936 to 1947.

</p><p>In 1940, he and colleague <a href="Winfred_Overholser" title="Winfred Overholser">Winfred Overholser</a>, serving on the <a href="American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Society</a>'s committee on Military Mobilization, formulated guidelines for the psychological screening of inductees to the U.S. military. He believed, writes one historian, "that sexuality played a minimal role in causing mental disorders and that adult homosexuals should be accepted and left alone."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his best efforts, others included homosexuality as a disqualification for military service.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Beginning on December 5, 1940, Sullivan served as psychiatric adviser to <a href="Selective_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective Service">Selective Service</a> director <a href="Clarence_A._Dykstra" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence A. Dykstra">Clarence A. Dykstra</a>, but resigned in November 1941 after General <a href="Lewis_Blaine_Hershey" title="Lewis Blaine Hershey">Lewis B. Hershey</a>, who was hostile to psychiatry, became the director.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sullivan then took part in establishing the <a href="Office_of_War_Information" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of War Information">Office of War Information</a> in 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div>

<p>Sullivan spent the last 22 years of his life in a relationship with James Inscoe, who was 20 years younger than Sullivan.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some contemporaries and historians have regarded Inscoe as an adopted son, the biography of his colleague Helen Swick Perry mentions the relationship, suggesting that close friends were aware they were partners.

</p><p>Sullivan died in Paris in 1949.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writings">Writings</h2></div>

<p>Although Sullivan published little in his lifetime, he influenced generations of mental health professionals, especially through his lectures at <a href="Chestnut_Lodge" title="Chestnut Lodge">Chestnut Lodge</a> in <a href="Rockville%2C_Maryland" title="Rockville, Maryland">Rockville, Maryland</a>. <a href="Leston_Havens" title="Leston Havens">Leston Havens</a> called him the most important underground influence in American psychoanalysis. His ideas were collected and published posthumously, edited by Helen Swick Perry, who also published a detailed biography in 1982 (Perry, 1982, <i>Psychiatrist of America</i>).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2></div>

<p>The following works are in Special Collections (MSA SC 5547) at the <a href="Maryland_State_Archives" title="Maryland State Archives">Maryland State Archives</a> in Annapolis: Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry, Soundscriber Transcriptions (Feb. 1945-May 1945); Lectures 1-97 (begins Oct. 2, 1942); Georgetown University Medical School Lectures (1939); Personal Psychopathology (1929–1933); The Psychiatry of Character and its Deviations-undated notes.

</p><p>His writings include:

</p>

<ol><li><i>The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry</i> (1953)</li>

<li>"The Psychiatric Interview" (1954)</li>

<li><i>Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry</i> (1947/1966)</li>

<li><i>Schizophrenia as a Human Process</i> (1962)</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_the_Sullivanians">Relationship to the Sullivanians</h2></div>

<p>After Sullivan's death, <a href="Saul_B._Newton" title="Saul B. Newton">Saul B. Newton</a> and his wife Jane Pearce established the Sullivan Institute for Research in Psychoanalysis in New York City, whose therapists and patients were commonly known as "Sullivanians".

</p><p>Newton and Pearce had worked with Sullivan at the William Alanson White Institute, and Pearce was a psychiatrist who studied with Sullivan in the late 1940s.

</p><p>Although the institute was named for Sullivan, it is widely regarded as a <a href="Cult" title="Cult">cult</a>, offering a distorted view of Sullivan's teachings.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFSullivan1947" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, H. S. (1947). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conceptionsofmod00sullrich"><i>Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry</i></a></span>. Washington D.C.:William A. White Psychiatric Foundation. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conceptionsofmod00sullrich/page/4">4</a>-5.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clara Thompson, "Sullivan and Psychoanalysis" in <cite id="CITEREFMullahy1952" class="citation book cs1">Mullahy, Patrick, ed. (1952). <i>The Contributions of Harry Stack Sullivan</i>. Hermitage House. p. 101.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKimbleWertheimer,_MichaelWhite,_Charlotte1991" class="citation book cs1">Kimble, Gregory A.; Wertheimer, Michael; White, Charlotte (1991). <i>Portraits of pioneers in psychology, Volume 1</i>. Routledge. p. 328. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8058-1136-2</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRioch_DM1985" class="citation journal cs1">Rioch DM (May 1985). "Recollections of Harry Stack Sullivan and of the development of his interpersonal psychiatry". <i>Psychiatry</i>. <b>48</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">141–</span>58. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00332747.1985.11024276">10.1080/00332747.1985.11024276</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3887444">3887444</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vande Kemp, 15</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWake2011" class="citation book cs1">Wake, Naoko (2011). <i><a href="Private_practices%3A_Harry_Stack_Sullivan%2C_the_science_of_homosexuality%2C_and_American_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Private practices: Harry Stack Sullivan, the science of homosexuality, and American liberalism">Private practices: Harry Stack Sullivan, the science of homosexuality, and American liberalism</a></i>. United States: <a href="Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0813549583</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bérubé, pp. 9—11</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vande Kemp, 16-7</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perry, 168</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hendrika Vande Kemp, "Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949): Hero, Ghost, and Muse," in E. Mark Stern and Robert B. Marchesani, eds., <i>Saints and Rogues: Conflicts and Convergence in Psychotherapy</i> (Haworth Press, 2004), 10-14, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Row2tlHv1zcC&pg=PA10&">available online</a>, accessed February 18, 2012</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>

<ul><li>Bérubé, Allan. <i>Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two</i>. New York: The Penguin Group, 1990. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-452-26598-3</bdi>.</li>

<li>Chapman, A.H.: <i>Harry Stack Sullivan: His Life and His Work</i>. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1976.</li>

<li>Evans III, F. Barton: <i>Harry Stack Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory and Psychotherapy</i>. London and New York: <a href="Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 1996.</li>

<li>Mitchell, Stephen A.: "Harry Stack Sullivan and Interpersonal Psychoanalysis." In: St. A. Mitchell & M. Black: <i>Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought</i>. New York: Basic Books, 1995, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-465-01405-7</bdi>, p. 60-84.</li>

<li>Mullahy, Patrick: <i>Psychoanalysis and Interpersonal Psychiatry: The Contributions of Harry Stack Sullivan</i>. New York: Science House, 1970.</li>

<li>Mumford, Robert S.: "Traditional Psychiatry, Freud, and H. S. Sullivan." <i>Comprehensive Psychiatry</i>, vol. 2, no. 1, February 1961.</li>

<li>Perry, Helen Swick: <i>Psychiatrist of America: The Life of Harry Stack Sullivan</i>. Cambridge MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-674-72076-8</bdi>.</li>

<li>Wake, Naoko: <i>Private Practices: Harry Stack Sullivan, the Science of Homosexuality, and American Liberalism</i>. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wawhite.org/">William Alanson White Institute</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFArnold1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Thurman_Arnold" title="Thurman Arnold">Arnold, Thurman</a> (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fairfightsfouldi0000arno"><i>Fair Fights and Foul; a Dissenting Lawyer's Life</i></a></span>. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fairfightsfouldi0000arno/page/60/mode/2up?view=theater">61-62</a> – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li></ul>

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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Behaviour_therapy" title="Behaviour therapy">Behaviour therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aversion_therapy" title="Aversion therapy">Aversion therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaining" title="Chaining">Chaining</a></li>

<li><a href="Contingency_management" title="Contingency management">Contingency management</a>

<ul><li><a href="Shaping_(psychology)" title="Shaping (psychology)">Shaping</a></li>

<li><a href="Stimulus_control" title="Stimulus control">Stimulus control</a></li>

<li><a href="Token_economy" title="Token economy">Token economy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Counterconditioning" title="Counterconditioning">Counterconditioning</a></li>

<li><a href="Desensitization_(psychology)" title="Desensitization (psychology)">Desensitization</a>/<a href="Exposure_therapy" title="Exposure therapy">Exposure therapy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Systematic_desensitization" title="Systematic desensitization">Systematic desensitization</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other individual therapy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Autogenic_training" title="Autogenic training">Autogenic training</a></li>

<li><a href="Biofeedback" title="Biofeedback">Biofeedback</a></li>

<li><a href="Clean_language" title="Clean language">Clean language</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_restructuring" title="Cognitive restructuring">Cognitive restructuring</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_self-regulation" title="Emotional self-regulation">Emotion regulation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Affect_labeling" title="Affect labeling">Affect labeling</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Free_association_(psychology)" title="Free association (psychology)">Free association</a></li>

<li><a href="Homework_in_psychotherapy" title="Homework in psychotherapy">Homework</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypnotherapy" title="Hypnotherapy">Hypnotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_(psychology)" title="Modeling (psychology)">Modeling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Group_psychotherapy" title="Group psychotherapy">Group psychotherapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Co-therapy" title="Co-therapy">Co-therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Couples_therapy" title="Couples therapy">Couples therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_therapy" title="Family therapy">Family therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychodrama" title="Psychodrama">Psychodrama</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensitivity_training" title="Sensitivity training">Sensitivity training</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Philippe_Pinel" title="Philippe Pinel">Philippe Pinel</a></li>

<li><a href="Josef_Breuer" title="Josef Breuer">Josef Breuer</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Janet" title="Pierre Janet">Pierre Janet</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Alfred Adler</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%A1ndor_Ferenczi" title="Sándor Ferenczi">Sándor Ferenczi</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Binswanger" title="Ludwig Binswanger">Ludwig Binswanger</a></li>

<li><a href="Melanie_Klein" title="Melanie Klein">Melanie Klein</a></li>

<li><a href="Karen_Horney" title="Karen Horney">Karen Horney</a></li>

<li><a href="Fritz_Perls" title="Fritz Perls">Fritz Perls</a></li>

<li><a href="Anna_Freud" title="Anna Freud">Anna Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Winnicott" title="Donald Winnicott">Donald Winnicott</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Reich" title="Wilhelm Reich">Wilhelm Reich</a></li>

<li><a href="Milton_H._Erickson" title="Milton H. Erickson">Milton H. Erickson</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a></li>

<li><a href="Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li>

<li><a href="Viktor_Frankl" title="Viktor Frankl">Viktor Frankl</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Kelly_(psychologist)" title="George Kelly (psychologist)">George Kelly</a></li>

<li><a href="Rollo_May" title="Rollo May">Rollo May</a></li>

<li><a href="Virginia_Axline" title="Virginia Axline">Virginia Axline</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Whitaker" title="Carl Whitaker">Carl Whitaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Ellis" title="Albert Ellis">Albert Ellis</a></li>

<li><a href="Silvano_Arieti" title="Silvano Arieti">Silvano Arieti</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Bugental" title="James Bugental">James Bugental</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Wolpe" title="Joseph Wolpe">Joseph Wolpe</a></li>

<li><a href="Virginia_Satir" title="Virginia Satir">Virginia Satir</a></li>

<li><a href="Aaron_Beck" title="Aaron Beck">Aaron Beck</a></li>

<li><a href="Salvador_Minuchin" title="Salvador Minuchin">Salvador Minuchin</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Paul Watzlawick</a></li>

<li><a href="Haim_Ginott" title="Haim Ginott">Haim Ginott</a></li>

<li><a href="Ogden_Lindsley" title="Ogden Lindsley">Ogden Lindsley</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Paul Watzlawick</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Janov" title="Arthur Janov">Arthur Janov</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugene_Gendlin" title="Eugene Gendlin">Eugene Gendlin</a></li>

<li><a href="R._D._Laing" title="R. D. Laing">R. D. Laing</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Baker_Miller" title="Jean Baker Miller">Jean Baker Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_F._Kernberg" title="Otto F. Kernberg">Otto F. Kernberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Nathan_Azrin" title="Nathan Azrin">Nathan Azrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Irvin_D._Yalom" title="Irvin D. Yalom">Irvin D. Yalom</a></li>

<li><a href="Arnold_Lazarus" title="Arnold Lazarus">Arnold Lazarus</a></li>

<li><a href="Lorna_Smith_Benjamin" title="Lorna Smith Benjamin">Lorna Smith Benjamin</a></li>

<li><a href="Marsha_M._Linehan" title="Marsha M. Linehan">Marsha M. Linehan</a></li>

<li><a href="Vittorio_Guidano" title="Vittorio Guidano">Vittorio Guidano</a></li>

<li><a href="Les_Greenberg" title="Les Greenberg">Les Greenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Richard_Miller" title="William Richard Miller">William R. Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Steven_C._Hayes" title="Steven C. Hayes">Steven C. Hayes</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_White_(psychotherapist)" title="Michael White (psychotherapist)">Michael White</a></li>

<li><a href="Jeffrey_Young_(psychologist)" title="Jeffrey Young (psychologist)">Jeffrey Young</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Fonagy" title="Peter Fonagy">Peter Fonagy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Psychotherapy" title="Association for the Advancement of Psychotherapy">Association for the Advancement of Psychotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Association_for_Applied_Psychophysiology_and_Biofeedback" title="Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback">Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback</a></li>

<li><a href="Association_for_Behavioral_and_Cognitive_Therapies" title="Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies">Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies</a></li>

<li><a href="Association_for_Behavior_Analysis_International" title="Association for Behavior Analysis International">Association for Behavior Analysis International</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Association_for_Psychotherapy" title="European Association for Psychotherapy">European Association for Psychotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Society_for_Psychotherapy_Research" title="Society for Psychotherapy Research">Society for Psychotherapy Research</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Council_for_Psychotherapy" title="World Council for Psychotherapy">World Council for Psychotherapy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000110676061">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/64106885">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/3082">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjCKkm7PB6tFdwXq3gYfq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118757784">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50010434">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12483277n">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12483277n">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00458054">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20000088827&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069458146">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Sullivan, Harry Stack, 1892-1949"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000055516&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/86lnk95s59bkltv">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810534220705606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007463520305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00532316?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/986742">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118757784">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/034035966">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6bg4tf1">SNAC</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/person/55017639-d53d-4005-87fe-ca92bbe92528">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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